Table 1 (Supplemental web material) 
Characteristics of Studies comparing Children with Dyslexia and Control children on Measures of Phonemic awareness, Rime awareness and Verbal Short-term Memory
Study
author, year	Control Type	N
RD (C)	Age
RD (C)	Outcome
Construct (indicator)
	Effect size d
	Language	
Reading level difference (d) RD vs control
(reading test)	Oral language difference (d) RD vs control
(Oral language test)	IQ difference (d) RD vs control
(IQ test)	
Abu-Rabia, Share, et al., 2003	CA

	20 (20)

	10:2 (10:1)

	Phoneme Aw (deletion first and last phoneme)
	-16.85

	Arabic

	-8.86 (WRMT-r translated) 9	-5.66 (oral cloze)
	-1.22

Ackerman, Holloway et al 2001	CA
	56 (45)
	9:7 (9:7)
	Phoneme Aw (TAAS)
Rime Aw (Rime generation)	-1.06
-0.84	English	-2.43
(WIAT)	-0.99 (WISC III comprehension)	-0.62
(WISC performance)	
Ashbaker & Swanson,1996	CA	30 (30)	14:2 (14:1)	VSTM (adapted word span)
	-1.54	English	-3.77 (WRAT-r reading)		IQ RD = 98.2 (TONI 2)	
Avons & Hanna, 1995	CA
	15 (15)
	10:3 (10:1)
	VSTM (adapted word span)
	-0.72
	English
	-5.95 (NARA Accuracy) p		-0.92 (WISC-r)	
	RL	15 (15)
	10:3 (6:11)	VSTM (adapted word span)	-0.05	English	0.40
(NARA Accuracy)		-1.07
(WISC-r)	
Badian, 1977
	CA	30 (30)	9:9 (9:7)	VSTM (ITPA auditory sequential memory, digits)	-1.81	English	-2.70
(GRAY oral reading)		-0.26
(Lorge Thorndike IQ test)	
Badian, 1994
Comparison 1 
	
CA
	
32 (17)
	
7:11 (7:8)
	
Phoneme Aw (TAAS)
	
-0.43
	
English
	
-4.77 (WRMT-r word id)	
0.01 (WISC verbal)	
-0.09 (WISC performance)	
    Comparison 2	CA
	9 (11)
	8:0 (7:11)	Phoneme Aw (TAAS)
	-1.79	English	-3.71
(WRMT-r word id)	-0.06 (WISC verbal)	-0.36
(WISC performance)	
Badian, 1997
	RL	28 (24)	8:9 (6:12)	Phoneme Aw (TAAS)
	-0.66	English	-0.30 (WRMT-r word id)	0.53 (WISC verbal)	0.11 (WISC performance)	
Badian, Duffy, Als et al., 1991
	CA	7 (30)	9:9 (9:10)	VSTM (number repetition Kaufman)	-0.80	English	-5.18 (GORT-r and K-TEA reading)	-0.37 (PPVT)	-0.36 (WISC performance)	
Barbosa, Miranda et al 2009	CA
	28 (25)
	8:2 (8:2)
	Phoneme aw (Syllable or phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime reception)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-2.46

-1.28
-0.83	Portuguese	-2.18
(adapted word reading test)	-1.67 (WISC vocabulary)	-1.22
(Raven)	
Bental & Tirosh, 2007
	CA	17 (23)	9:11 (9:8)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.82	Hebrew	-1.40
(Nitzan diagnostic battery word accuracy)	0.39 (WISC vocabulary)	-0.69
(WISC block design)	
Bertucci, Hook, Haynes et al, 2003	CA	19 (8)	16:10 (16:4)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	-0.93	English	-3.21 (WJ word id)			
Boada & Pennington, 2006	CA

	20 (20)

	12:3 (12:1)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme reversal and pig latin)
	-1.55

	English

	-2.21
(PIAT reading recognition) p		-0.35 (WASI performance) 1	
	RL	20 (20)
	12:3 (8:4)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme reversal and pig latin)
	0.03	English	0.74
(PIAT reading recognition)		-0.52
(WASI performance)	
Bonte & Blombert, 2004 
	CA
	14 (15)
	8:10 (8:2)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.20	Dutch	-1.63
(One minute reading test)	-1.65 (Passive vocabulary test, Bleichrodt, Drenth, Zaal et al.)	IQ in the normal range (WISC and RAVEN)	
Bosse, Tainturier et. al 2007
 Comparison 1 	

CA

68 (55)

11:6 (11:6)

Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)

-0.67

French

-1.39 (Alouette reading test)		

-0.54 (Raven)	
Comparison 2
	CA
	29 (23)	10:5 (10:6)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme alliteration)
Rime Aw (Rime generation)	-0.38
-0.72	English	-2.94 (WRAT-r)	-0.55 (BPVS)		
Bowers, 1989
	CA	14 (13)	4. grade	Phoneme Aw (TAAS)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-1.10
-0.74	English	-1.44 (WRMT word id)	-1.37 (PPVT)		
Bowers, 1995
	CA	9 (20)	4. grade	Phoneme Aw (Oddity task phoneme)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-0.78
-0.40	English	-2.79 (WRMT word id)	-0.87 (WISC vocabulary)		
Bowey, Cain & Ryan, 1992
	CA

RL	16 (16)

16 (16)	9:1 (9:3)

9:1 (7:4)	Phoneme Aw (Oddity task phoneme)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)
Phoneme Aw (Oddity task phoneme)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-2.07
-0.85
-0.74
0.04	English

English	-4.53 (WRMT word id)
-0.03 (WRMT word id)	-1.69 (PPVT)

-1.63 (PPVT)		
Bowers & Swanson, 1991	CA
	24 (19)
	2. grade
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion from TAAS)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-0.66
-0.37
	English	-2.37 (WRMT word id)
	-0.44 (WISC vocabulary)		
Bradley & Bryant, 1978
	RL	60 (30)	10:4 (6:10)	Phoneme Aw (Phoneme Oddity task)
	-0.85	English	Reading age RD = 7:7, C = 7:6 (NARA) 		IQ RD = 108.7, C = 107.9 (WISC)	
Brandys & Rourke, 1991
	CA	11 (31)	11:8 (12:3)	Rime Aw (Rime fluency)
	-0.87	English	RD = 19.91 percentile, C = 75.68 percentile (WRAT)	RD = 82.4, C = 96.6 (WISC verbal)	112.7 RD
109.2 C
(WISC Performance)	
Breznitz, 2002	CA
	20 (20)
	10:3 (10:3)
	Phoneme Aw (composite phoneme and syllable deletion)	-3.83
	Hebrew	-2.06 (One minute reading test)		0.22 (RAVEN)	
Bruck, 1992
	CA

RL	9 (19)

31 (37)	8:6 (8:5) 

11:7 (7:9)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)

Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	-1.26

-1.15	English

English	-3.03 (WRAT reading) P
-0.33		Mean IQ RD = 107 (WISC) 	
Bruno, Manis et al. 2007	CA	23 (23)	11:8 (11:2)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion CTOPP)
	-1.36	English	-3.69 (W-J RMT)	-1.21 (WISC vocabulary and similarities)	-0.49 (WISC block design and Picture completion)	
Casalis, Cole & Sopo, 2004
	CA

RL	33 (33)

31 (37)	10:1 (10:2) 

10:1 (7:5)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)

Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	-1.79

-1.41	French

French	-1.11 (Alouette reading test)
-0.08 (Alouette reading test)		IQ RD > 25 percentile (RAVEN) 	
Chiappe, Chiappe & Gottardo 2004	CA
	13 (49)
	7:8 (7:6)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion CTOPP)
VSTM (digit span CTOPP)	-0.86
-0.80	English 
English 	-1.38 (WRAT-3 reading )	0.11 (PPVT)	
	
Constantinidou & Stainthorp, 2009	CA

	20 (20)

	9:6-9:11
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme spoonerisms)
Rime Aw (Rime oddity task)
	-1.38
-1.45
	Greek

	-7.62 (Adapted accuracy test) h
	-0.34 (adapted listening comprehension test)	-0.02 (Raven)

 	
	RL
	20 (20)
	9:6-9:11 (6:9-6-11)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme spoonerisms)
Rime Aw (Rime oddity task)	-1.91
-1.43	Greek
	-0.29 (Adapted accuracy test)
	0.19 (adapted listening comprehension test)	-0.04 (Raven)
	
Curtin, Manis & Seidenberg, 2001	CA

	28 (15)

	8:6 (8:6)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)

	-0.91

	English 

	-2.92 (Woodcock reading grade equivalency) p	0.09 (Vocabulary subtest WISC)		
	RL
	28 (15)	8:6 (7:0)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.37	English 
	0.14 (Woodcock reading grade equivalency) p	-1.01 (Vocabulary subtest WISC)		
de Jong & van der Leij, 2003
Comparison 1 

CA

19 (19)

5:4 (5:4)

Phoneme Aw (phoneme categorisation)
Rime Aw (Rime categorisation)	

-0.93
-0.58	

Dutch

-3.43 (one minute reading test- ccuracy).h	

-0.08 (Similar to PPVT)

-0.15 (Block design)
	
Comparison 2	CA
	13 (25)
	10:2 (10:2)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.49
	Dutch
	-2.20 (one minute reading test)	-0.42 (vocabulary test)		
de Jong 1998	CA
	18 (18)
	10:3 (10:2)
	VSTM (adapted word span)
	-1.43
	Dutch
	-6.05 (one minute reading test) h	-0.33 (Picture vocabulary)	
	
	RL
	18 (18)
	10:3 (8:2)
	VSTM (adapted word span)
	-0.40
	Dutch
	-0.03 (one minute reading test)	1.51 (Picture vocabulary)		
Duncan & Johnston, 1999	CA
	41 (41)
	10:8 (10:8)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime judgement)	-1.90
-0.80	English 
	-3.13 (BAS word recognition) 		-0.39 (WISC brief IQ)	
	RL
	41 (41)
	10:8 (7:3)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime judgement)	-0.60
-0.26	English
	-0.28 (BAS word recognition)		-0.21 (WISC brief IQ)	
Eckert, Leonard et al., 2003	CA
	18 (32)
	11:3 (11:4)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion CTOPP)
	-2.12
	English 
	-2.54 (WRMT-r WI) 	-0.67 (WISC verbal IQ)		
Eden, Stein et al., 1995	CA
	26 (39)
	11:7 (10:11)
	Phoneme Aw (composite syllable and phoneme deletion)	-0.95
	English 
	-2.59 (WJ reading cluster) 		-0.89 (WISC full IQ)	
Elbro & Jensen 2005	RL

	19 (19)

	12:1 (8:6)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme substitution)
	-1.78
	Danish

	0.00 (adapted single word decoding) 	0.52 (OK receptive vocabulary)		
Farmer & Klein, 1993
	CA

RL	20 (20)

20 (20)	14:1 (14:10)

14:1 (8:9)	Rime Aw (not specified)

Rime Aw (not specified)	-0.92

-0.25	English 

English 	-1.80 (Word attack)
-0.39 (Word attack)			
Farnham-Diggory & Gregg, 1975	CA

	12 (12)

	10-11 y 

	VSTM (Letter span)

	-0.74
	English

	-1.21 (adapted single word decoding) 			
Faust, Dimitrovsky & Shacht 2003	CA

	15 (15)

	9:1 (9:1) 

	Phoneme aw (composite syllable and phoneme deletion)
	-4.44
	Hebrew

	Reading achievement two years below grade level		Performance in the average range on Raven	
Fawcett & Nicolson 1995Comparison 1 

CA

11 (10)

8:8 (8:2) 

Phoneme Aw (TAAS)

-0.83

English

Reading age RD = 6:6, C = 9:2 (Schonell test of reading age) p		

IQ RD = 113.4, IQ C = 115.1 (WISC)
	
Comparison 2	CA
	10 (12)
	13:4 (13:5)	Phoneme Aw (TAAS)
	-2.23	English
	Reading age RD = 9:9, C = 13:7 (Schonell test of reading age)		IQ RD = 111.2, C = 111.8 (WISC)	
Fein, Davenport et al. 1988
Comparison 1 

CA

34 (35)

11:10 (11:3) 

VSTM (Word span Detroit test of learning aptitude)	

-1.33

English

-3.68 (Gray oral reading test) p	

-1.21 (WISC verbal)	

-0.24 (WISC Performance) p	
    Comparison 2	CA
	10 (12)
	13:4 (13:5)	VSTM (Word span Detroit test of learning aptitude)
	-1.15	English
	-3.68 (Gray oral reading test)

Both samples combined	-1.21 (WISC verbal)

Both samples combined	-0.24 (WISC Performance)

Both samples combined	
Felton & Wood, 1989	CA
	25 (333)	7:1 (7:1)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
VSTM (Word string recall)	-1.12
-0.12	English
	-1.73 (WJ word id)	0.69 (PPVT)	-0.31 (Raven)
	
Fletcher, Shaywitz et.al 1994	CA

	48 (47)

	7.5-9.5 y

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion TAAS)
VSTM (Word string recall)
	-1.38
-0.93	English
	-2.1 (WJ word id)	-0.72 (WISC verbal)	-0.68 (WISC Performance)
	
Frederickson & Frith, 1998	CA
	89 (89)	9:9 (9:10)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme spoonerisms)
Rime Aw (Rime judgement)	-0.98
-0.70	English
	-2.13 (NARA accuracy)		-0.31 (WISC or BAS)	
Geary, Hamson & Hoard, 2000	CA	14 (26)	6:8 (6:8)	VSTM (digit span forward WISC)
	-0.66	English
	-1.91 (WJ letter-word identification)		-0.91 (WISC or Stanford Binet vocabulary and block design)	
Goswami, Thomson et al 2002	CA
	24 (25)
	9:0 (9:0)
	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
	-1.84
	English
	-3.06 (BAS reading) p		-0.25 (WISC brief IQ)	
	RL
	24 (24)
	9:0 (7:11)
	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
	-0.42
	English
	-0.57 (BAS reading)		0.30 (WISC brief IQ)	
Gottardo, Chiappe et al. 1999	CA

	68 (44)

	8:10 (8:10)

	Phoneme Aw (TAAS composite syllable and phoneme deletion)
	-1.44

	English

	-2.46 (WRAT-r reading )
			
	RL
	68 (23)
	8:10 (7:4)	Phoneme Aw (TAAS composite syllable and phoneme deletion)	-0.52
	English
	0.03 (WRAT-r reading )			
Goulandris, Snowling & Walker, 2000	CA

	20 (19)

	15:9 (15:8)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme spoonerisms)

	-1.22

	English

	-2.00 (WORD single word recognition)	-0.38 (BPVS)

	0.15 (WISC block design)p
	
	RL	20 (18)	15:9 (10:5)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme spoonerisms)	-0.49	English		2.41 (BPVS)	0.71 (WISC block design)	
Greaney & Tunmer 1996	RL
	20 (19)
	11:2 (7:5)
	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
	-0.05
	English
	-0.24 (BURT word reading)		RD IQ > 80 (PPVT)	
Griffiths & Snowling 2002
	RL

	59 (59)

	12:2 (8:2)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime fluency)	-0.41
-0.17

	English
English

	Reading age RD 8:2, Controls 8:2 
		RD 10.32 scaled score (WISC block design)	
Gustafson, 2001
	CA
	53 (29)
	11:2 (11:0)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme generation)

	-0.53

	Swedish

	-1.88 (adapted nonword reading test) p	-0.81 (Semantic fluency)		
	RL
	53 (26)
	11:2 (8:11)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme generation)
	-0.11
	Swedish
	-0.11 (adapted nonword reading test)	-0.17 (Semantic fluency)		
Hawelka & Wimmer, 2005
	CA

	15 (15)

	15:11 (15:3)

	Rime Aw (Rime detection)

	-1.05

	German

	-3.24 (sentence reading fluency test) p
		-0.14 (Primary Test of Cognitive Skills- nonverbal IQ)	
Helland & Asbjørnsen, 2004	CA

	12 (20)

	12:2 (12:11)

	VSTM (digit span forward WISC)

	-0.92

	Norwegian

	-2.06 (Aston Index single word reading)	-1.55 (WISC verbal)	-0.23 (WISC performance IQ)	
Holligan & Johnston, 1988	CA
	20 (20)
	8:6 (8:3)
	Rime Aw (Rime detection)
	-1.16
	English
	-3.47 (BAS word recognition) p		-0.41 (WISC brief IQ) p	
	RL
	20 (20)
	8:6 (7:2)
	Rime Aw (Rime detection)
VSTM (letter span)
	-0.89
-0.82
	English
	-0.60 (BAS word recognition)		-0.32 (WISC brief IQ)
	
Hulslander, Talcott et al., 2004	CA
	21 (29)
	15:5 (15:2)

	Phoneme Aw (phonemic awareness composite: deletion, segmentation and Lindamood)	-2.60

	English

	-5.37 (Timed word recognition test , Olson et al 1994)		-1.72 (WISC full IQ) p
	
Jeffries & Everatt, 2004
	CA

	21 (40)

	10:8 (11:1)

	Phoneme Aw (ph alliteration)
Rime Aw (Rime oddity task)
VSTM (digit recall WMTB-c)	-1.21
-1.61
-0.94	English

	-2.24 (Phonological ability battery, nonword reading)		Classified as SEN dyslexia after assessment p	
Jiménez González & Ramírez Santana 2002	CA

	89 (37)

	8:7 (8:9)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme segmentation)

	-0.97

	Spanish

	-4.40 (TALE word decoding test) p 
		p
	
	RL
	89 (39)
	8:7 (6:9)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme segmentation)
	-0.57
	Spanish
	-0.06 (TALE word decoding test) p			
Jiménez González 1997
	CA

RL	45 (44)

45 (44)	8:6 (8:4)

8:6 (6:6)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme segmentation)

Phoneme Aw (phoneme segmentation)	-1.52

-0.72	Spanish

Spanish	Categorised on the basis of teacher judgement and TALE scores. 		p
	
Jimenéz, García, et al 2005	CA

	29 (41)

	9:8 (9:7)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)

	-1.09
	Spanish

	-2.57 (PROLEC pseudoword reading). R		-0.31 (Cattell & Cattell IQ test)	
Joanisse, Manis, et al., 2000	CA
	61 (52)
	8:7 (8:5)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.16
	English 
	-3.82 (WRMT-r word id). R	-0.71 (Vocabulary WISC-r)		
	RL
	61 (37)
	8:7 (6:11)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.46
	English	-0.26 (WRMT-r word id)	-1.13 (Vocabulary WISC-r)		
Johnston & Anderson, 1998	CA
	30 (19)
	11:4 (11:2)
	VSTM (word span 1, 2 and 3 syllable words)
	-1.20
	English 
	-3.50 (BAS word reading test). R		-0.20 (WISC brief IQ)	
	RL
	30 (20)
	11:4 (8:4)
	VSTM (word span 1, 2 and 3 syllable words)
	-0.40
	English	-0.47 (BAS word reading test)		-0.49 (WISC brief IQ)	
Kamhi & Catts, 1986	CA	12 (12)	7:7 (7:2)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	-1.11	English 
	-0.80 (Woodcock word id)	-0.81 (TOLD)	-0.02 (TONI)	
Katzir, Kim et al., 2006
	RL

	17 (17)

	8:4 (7:1)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
VSTM (digit span CTOPP)
	0.52
-0.89
	English 

	-0.06 (WRMT- word id). R
	-0.55 (verbal IQ WISC III)	Performance on Kaufman Brief intelligence test > 80.	
Kim, Kim & Lee, 2007	CA
	27 (34)
	1. grade
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.33
	Korean
	-1.42 (Adapted Word recognition test). R			
King, Giess et al., 2007
	CA

	93 (93)

	11:4 (11:6)

	Phoneme Aw (CTOPP phoneme composite)

	-1.43

	English 

	-1.44 (WJ word id). R
	0.10 (WJ verbal abilities)	Specific RD = 1 st error below their expected reading achievement given their intelligence (Full WISC)	
Kirby, Booth & Das, 1996
Comparison 1	

CA

	

15 (15)

	

10:4 (10:3)

	

VSTM (word span familiar words)

	

-0.93

	

English 

	

-2.34 (W-J word id)

		

IQ RD 98.5, C = age equivalent (WISC performance)	
	RL	15 (15)	10:4 (7:6)	VSTM (word span familiar words)	-0.58	English	0.16 (W-J word id)			
Comparison 1	
CA

	
15 (15)

	
10:4 (10:3)

	
VSTM (word span familiar words)

	
-0.30

	
English 

	
-1.90 (W-J word id)

		
IQ RD = 115.7, C = age equivalent (WISC performance)	
	RL	15 (15)	10:4 (7:6)	VSTM (word span familiar words)	0.04	English	0.88 (W-J word id)			
Kroese, Hynd et al 2000	CA
	34 (13)
	9:6 (9:8)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.44
	English 
	-2.35 (WRAT reading). R		-1.05 (WISC full scale IQ)	
Kronbichler, Hutzler & Wimmer, 2002	CA

	20 (20)

	13:7 (13:3)

	Rime Aw (Rime detection)

	-0.89

	German

	-3.83 (reading rate- syllables/min). R
		-0.23 (Primary test of cognitive skills)	
Landerl, 2001
	CA
	78 (191)
	9:3 (9:4)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.93
	German 
	Below 17 percentile on Salzburger Lese und Rechtschreibtest		0.29 (Raven)	
Landerl, Bevan & Butterworth, 2004	CA	10 (18)	9:17 (9:06)	VSTM (Digit span WISC)	-0.83	English	-2.94 (BAS reading)	0.08 (BPVS)	0.25 (Raven)	
Landerl & Wimmer 2000
Comparison 1 

CA

17 (19)

12.3 (12:7)

Phoneme Aw (phoneme and onset spoonerisms)

-1.14

English 

RD 8 percentile, C 66 percentile (BAS word decoding) p		

IQ RD =103, C=106 (Raven)

	RL
	17 (21)
	12:3 (8:3)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme and onset spoonerisms) p	-0.18
	English
	RD 8 percentile, C 8 percentile (BAS word decoding)		IQ RD = 103, C = 106 (Raven)	
Comparison 2	CA
	18 (18)
	11:7 (11:7)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme and onset spoonerisms)
	-0.76
	German
	RD 12 percentile, 
C 87 percentile (Salzburger Lese und Rechtschreibtest)		IQ RD = 103, C = 100 (Raven)
	
	RL
	18 (18)
	11:7 (8:8)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme and onset spoonerisms)
	-0.46	German
	RD 12 percentile, 
C 17 percentile (Salzburger Lese und Rechtschreibtest)		IQ RD = 103, C = 106 (Raven)
	
Leach, Scarborough et al 2003	CA

	28 (95)

	10:6

	Phoneme Aw (Similar to Lindamood but with more phoneme based tasks)
	-1.01

	English 

	-1.51 (WJ word Id)	-0.25 (WISC III vocabulary)	0.05 (WISC block design)	
Lencher, Gerber et al 1990
	CA

	19 (19)

	9:2 (9:4)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme substitution consonants and vowels)

	-2.32

	English 

	-3.36 (pseudoword decoding accuracy) R
		No IQ scores available for RD, but the RD had general good academic achievement. IQ control = 110.5 (full IQ WISC)	
Littlefield & Klein, 2005	CA	20 (20)	10:1 (10:1)	Phoneme Aw (Phonological processing NEPSY)
VSTM (Digit span WISC)	-1.33
-0.20	English 
	-1.32 (The screening assessment for reading, Chall, Roswell et al. 1998)	-0.23 (Expressive one picture vocabulary test)		
Lundberg & Høien, 1990
	CA

	19 (19)

	15 years 

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme blending)

	-1.94

	Norwegian

	-1.17 (adapted word reading accuracy) p R
		Selected on the basis of Raven and assessment from the office of school psychology	
Manis, McBride-Chang et al. 1997	CA

	25 (25)	13:4 (12:0)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme position analysis)
	-1.03
		-3.56 (WRMT-r word id)
		-0.40 (WISC short form)
	
	RL
	25 (24)	13:4 (8:6)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme position analysis)
	-0.43		SS not comparable (WRMT-r word id)		-0.53 (WISC short form)	
Manis, Seidenberg et al. 1999	CA

	72 (44)

	8:6 (8:5)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)

	-1.74

	English 

	-3.97 (WRMT-r word id)p
	-1.61 (WISC vocabulary)
		
	RL
	72 (33)
	8:6 (6:9)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.91
	English	0.11 (WRMT-r word id)	-0.59 (WISC vocabulary)		
Marshall, Snowling & Bailey 2001 	CA

	17 (17)
	12:4 (12:4)
	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity)
Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.58
-3.06	English 
	-2.78 (WORD basic reading component) 		0.20 (block design WISC)
	
	RL
	17 (17)	12:4 (7:9)	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity)
Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	-0.12
-0.88	English	-0.08 (WORD basic reading component)		0.03 (block design WISC)	
Mauer & Kamhi, 1996	CA
	20 (10)
	8:2 (7:8)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	-1.18
	English 
	-3.20 (WRMT-r word id) 5	-4.12 (TOLD)
	-1.23 (TONI)
	
McBride-Chang & Manis, 1996	CA
	51 (74)	9:4 (9:1)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	-1.57	English 
	-4.05 (WRAT reading)	-1.13 (WISC vocabulary)	-1.26 (WISC short form)	
McDougall & Donohoe, 2002
	CA

	12 (16)

	9:0 (8:1)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime discrimination)
VSTM (word span high and low frequency words)	-1.72
-1.16
-0.58	English

	-4.45 (BAS word reading test)
		-1.03 (WISC short form)

	RL	12 (14)	9:0 (7:0)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime discrimination)
VSTM (word span high and low frequency words)	-0.18
0.46
0.29	English	0.01 (BAS word reading test)
		-0.49 (WISC short form)	
McNeil & Johnston, 2004 	RL
	18 (19)	12:0 (7:6)	VSTM (adapted word span)	0.02	English	-0.02 (BAS reading)		0.28 (WISC short form)	
Messbauer & de Jong, 2003	CA
	21 (21)
	10:0 (10:0)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion CCVC CVCC)
	-0.93
	Dutch
	-4.91 (One minute reading test, accuracy and fluency)	-0.17 (similar to PPVT)
	0.07 (Raven)

	RL
	21 (21)	10:0 (7:8)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion CCVC CVCC)
	-0.08	Dutch	0.03 (One minute reading test, accuracy and fluency)	-0.80 (similar to PPVT)
	0.58 (Raven)	
Metsala 1997
Comparison 1 	
CA	
19 (24)	
7:6 (7:9)	
Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion initial and final phoneme)	
-1.50	
English 
	
-2.76 (WRAT- reading)p	
-0.06 (PPVT)

Comparison 2	CA
	16 (24)
	11:3 (10:9)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion initial and final phoneme)	-1.18
	English	-2.89 (WRAT- reading)	-1.15 (PPVT)
		
Metsala 1999a
	CA
	35 (48)
	9:4 (9:4)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion initial and final phoneme)
	-1.30

	English

	-2.93 (WRAT- reading)
	Verbal IQ > 80 in RD (PPVT)	
	
	RL	20 (20)	10:1 (7:11)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion initial and final phoneme)	-0.57	English	-0.25 (WRAT- reading)	Verbal IQ > 80 in RD (PPVT)		
Meyer, Wood et al, 1998 
	CA
	64 (154)	3. grade	Phoneme Aw (TAAS- composite phoneme and syllable)
	-1.30	English	-2.12 (WJ reading cluster)		RD Performance IQ = 94 in 3 grade (WISC), C IQ = 101 in grade 1 (Raven)	
Miller-Shaul, 2005	CA
	25 (25)	4. grade	Rime Aw (Rime detection)
	-0.57	Hebrew	-1.53 (Word list test for children (accuracy)		RD and C matched on IQ (Raven)	
Mimran 2006
	CA
	24 (20)	11:6 (11:6)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)
	-2.12
-0.72	Hebrew	-3.37 Reading accuracy diagnostic test 	-1.92 (adapted composite oral language)	-0.25 (WISC performance IQ)	
Morfidi, van der Leij et al 2006
	CA
	26 (26)	14:9 (14:9)	Phoneme Aw (Phoneme and onset spoonerisms)	-0.67	Dutch	-1.76 (One minute reading test, accuracy and fluency)	-0.18 (PPVT)		
Muneaux, Ziegler, et al., 2004	CA
	18 (20)
	11:2 (11:2)
	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity)
VSTM (word span	-1.47
-0.40
	French	-3.40 (Alouette reading test)		RD IQ > 85	
	RL	18 (18)	11:2 (7:2)	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity)
VSTM (word span)	-0.14
0.42	French	-0.39 (Alouette reading test)		RD IQ > 85	
Murphy & Pollatsek, 1994	CA
	65 (17)
	11:5 (11:5)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme segmentation)
	-1.53
	English
	-4.27 (WRAT reading) 	-0.92 (WISC verbal IQ)	-0.52 (WISC performance IQ	
	RL	65 (65)	11:5 (7:7)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme segmentation)
	-0.58	English	St scores RD = 77, RL C = 110. 4		IQ RD = 107.1 (WISC performance IQ)	
Nelson & Warrington, 1980
	CA	51 (26)	11:5 (11:6)	VSTM (digit span forward WISC)
	-1.45	English	-3.11 (Schonell test of reading age)		IQ RD = 110.6
(WISC performance IQ)	
Nicolson & Fawcett, 1995										
Comparison 1	CA

	12 (10)	8:8 (8:2)	Phoneme Aw (Phoneme and syllable deletion)
VSTM (word span 1, 2, 3 syllables)	-1.03
-0.43	English	Reading age RD = 6.6, C = 9.2 (Schonell test of reading age)		IQ RD = 113.4, C = 115.1 (WISC-r)	
Comparison 2	CA

	10 (11)

	12:4 (12:5)

	Phoneme Aw (Phoneme and syllable deletion)
VSTM (word span 1, 2, 3 syllables)	-1.97
-0.46

	English

	Reading age RD = 9.3, C = 12.5 (Schonell test of reading age) p		IQ RD = 111.2, C = 111.6 (WISC-r)	
	RL	10 (10)	12:4 (8:2)	Phoneme Aw (Phoneme and syllable deletion)
VSTM (word span 1, 2, 3 syllables)	-0.74
0.40	English	Reading age RD = 9.3, C = 9.2 (Schonell test of reading age)		IQ RD = 111.2 C = 115.1 (WISC-r)	
Comparison 3	CA	11 (12)
	16:4 (16:5)
	VSTM (word span 1, 2, 3 syllables)
	-0.57
	English

	Reading age RD = 12.5, C = 15.0 (Schonell test of reading age) p		IQ RD = 105 C = 106.8 (WISC-r)	
	RL	11 (11)	16:4 (12:5)	Phoneme Aw (Phoneme and syllable deletion)
VSTM (word span 1, 2, 3 syllables)	-1.28
0.12	English	Reading age RD = 12.5, C = 12.5 (Schonell test of reading age)		IQ RD = 105 C = 111.6 (WISC-r)	
Palmer 2000
	CA	16 (16)	14:1 (14:1)	VSTM (digit span)
	-0.80	English	-4.57 (Schonell test of reading age) p		-0.64 (WISC short form)	
	RL	16 (16)	14:1 (9:0)	VSTM (digit span)	1.24		-0.08 (Schonell test of reading age)		-0.36 (WISC short form)	
Pammer, Lavis et al 2004	CA	13 (13)	10:6 (10:7)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
VSTM (digit span BAS II)	-3.82
-1.14	English	-2.82 (NARA accuracy)	0.24 (BAS similarities)	0.63 (martices BAS II)	
Pennington, Cardoso-Martins, et al., 2001										
Comparison 1	CA
	35 (21)
	9:11 (9:10)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme reversal- production)
VSTM (word span real words)	-1.49
-1.14	English
	-2.83 (PIAT reading recognition)p
	-1.18 (WISC verbal IQ)	-0.65 (Raven)
	
	RL	35 (25)	9:11 (9:0)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme reversal- production)
VSTM (word span real words)	-0.51
0.25	English	-0.34 (PIAT reading recognition)	-0.42 (WISC verbal IQ)
	-0.09 (Raven)	
Comparison 2	CA
	36 (20)
	14:11 (14:8)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme reversal- production)
VSTM (word span real words)	-0.99
-0.74	English
	-1.40 (PIAT reading recognition)p	-0.99 (WISC verbal IQ)
	-0.46 (Raven)
	
	RL	36 (31)	14:11 (11:4)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme reversal- production)
VSTM (word span real words)	-0.60
-0.64	English	0.15 (PIAT reading recognition)p	-0.96 (WISC verbal IQ)	-0.86 (Raven)
	
Porpodas, 1999
	CA
	16 (16)	7:1 (7:0)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Word span (word span rhyming and nonrhyming words)	-1.43
-0.74	Greek	-1.28 (word reading accuracy test)		-0.81 (Raven)	
Pratt & Brady, 1988	CA
	15 (15)	9:6 (9:2)	Phoneme Aw (Phoneme and syllable deletion)	-2.75	English	-3.19 (WRMT-r word id)	-0.54 (PPVT)	0.16 (RAVEN)	
Ramus, Pidgeon, & Frith, 2003	CA
	22 (20)	9:11 (9:10)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme spoonerisms)
Rime Aw (Rime generation)	-1.64
-0.54	English	-2.61 (WRAT reading)	0.35 (WISC verbal IQ)	-0.06 (WISC performance IQ)	
Rapala & Brady, 1990	CA
	14 (14)	8:8 (8:7)	VSTM (word span concrete nouns)
	-0.84	English	-2.85 (WRMT-r word id)	-0.39 (PPVT)		
Reiter, Tucha et al. 2005	CA
	42 (42)	10:10 (10:7)	VSTM (digit span )	-0.42	German	On the 5th. Percentile (Reading test of Zurich)		IQ RD > 90 (WISC)	
Richardson, Thomson et.al 2004	CA
	24 (24)
	8:9 (8:10)
	Rime Aw (Rime generation)
VSTM (word span CVC words)	-0.65
-0.88
	English
	-3.67 (BAS word recognition)	0.05 (PPVT)
	-0.07 (WISC short form)	
	RL
	24 (17)	8:9 (7:3)	Rime Aw (Rime generation)
VSTM (word span CVC words)	-0.41
0.16	English	-0.02 (BAS word recognition)	0.03 (PPVT)	-0.02 (WISC short form)	
Rispens & Been, 2007	CA
	17 (17)	8:7 (8:7)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.76	Dutch	-3.91 (Real Word Test -accuracy and fluency)		-0.08 (incomplete drawings WISC)	
Roodenrys & Stokes, 2001	CA
	16 (16)
	8:11 (8:7)
	VSTM (word span real words)
	-0.65
	English
	-2.30 (NARA accuracy)		0.19 (Raven)
	
	RL
	16 (16)	8:11 (6:3)	VSTM (word span real words)
	0.30	English	0.0 (NARA accuracy)		-0.31 (Raven)	
Savage & Frederickson 2006	CA	34 (33)	10:5 (10:8)	Rime Aw (Rime generation)
VSTM (digit span forward BAS II)	-0.74
-0.49	English	-2.97 (NARA accuracy)	0.73 (BPVS)	-0.40 (Raven)	
Serrano & Defior, 2008	CA	10 (10)	12:7 (12:8)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme detection)	-0.64	Spanish	-3.02 (pseudo-homophone reading) 		-0.12 (Raven)
	
	RL	10 (10)	12:7 (9:2)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme detection)	0.00	Spanish	-0.09 (PEREL test)		-0.42 (Raven)	
Shaywitz, Fletcher et al., 1999	CA	21 (35)	14:6 (14:5)	Phoneme Aw (AAT and pig latin)
	-1.65	English	-1.04 (Composite Word Id and Word attack W-J)	-1.80 (WISC verbal IQ)	-0.71 (WISC performance IQ)	
Snowling, Gallagher & Frith, 2003	CA	37 (29)	8:0 (8:0)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
	-1.62
-1.30	English	-2.70 (WORD reading)	-1.66 (WOLD listening comprehension)	-0.66 (Bas II matrices)	
Snowling, Goulandris & Defty, 1996
	CA

RL	20 (20)

20 (20)	9:8 (9:8)

9:8 (6:10)	Rime Aw (Rime generation)

VSTM (digit span forward BAS II)
	-1.12

-0.14	English

English	-2.30 (BAS WORD reading)
0.02 (BAS WORD reading)		RD IQ = 108.6 (WISC)
-0.04 (WISC)
	
Snyder & Downey 1991
	CA	93 (93)	11:2 (11:2)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.42	English	RD =73.6, C = 96.% (PIAT reading recognition)	-1.15 (WISC verbal IQ)	-0.62 (WISC Performance IQ)	
Sperling, Lu, et al. 2003	CA	19 (19)	12:5 (12:4)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.24	English	-4.14 (Woodcock word ID)	-0.93 (PPVT)	-0.08 (Visual closure WJ cognitive abilities)	
Stone & Brady, 1981	CA
	30 (30)
	8:10 (8:8)
	VSTM (word span concrete nouns)	-0.74	English
	-2.73 (WRMT-r word id)	-0.24 (PPVT)	-0.35 (WISC Block design)	
	RL	30 (30)	8:10 (7:8)	VSTM (word span concrete nouns)	-0.42	English	0.41 (WRMT-r word id)	-0.22 (PPVT)	-0.04 (WISC Block design)	
Stothard & Hulme, 1995	RL
	14 (14)	8:5 (6:8)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme sponerisms)	-1.39	English	-0.01 (NARA reading accuracy age)	-0.50 (WISC verbal)	-0.27 ((WISC performance IQ)	
Swanson, 1999
	CA

	18 (18)

	11:5 (11:3)

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-0.33

	English

	-3.29 (KTEA word recognition)
	-1.37 (Gates-MacGinity vocabulary)	-0.35 (Raven)
	
	RL
	18 (18)	11:5 (8:3)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	0.33	English	No significant differences between RD and RL on word recognition (KTEA)	-1.00 (Gates-MacGinity vocabulary)	-0.54 (Raven)	
Swanson & Alexander, 1997
	CA	40 (40)	10:2 (9:10)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.10	English	-1.24 (KTEA combined reading recognition and comprehension score)		-0.44 (Raven)	
Swanson & Ashbaker 2000
Comparison 1	

CA	

30 (30)	

15:1 (14:10)	

VSTM (word span, one syllable high frequency words)	

-0.98	

English

-5.87 (WRAT-3 reading)		

IQ RD = 99.1 (WISC III)	
	RL	30 (30)	15:1 (9:2)	VSTM (word span, one syllable high frequency words)	-0.53	English	0.24 (WRAT-3 reading)		IQ RD = 99.1 (WISC III)	
Comparison 2
	CA
	20 (20)
	15:5 (14:12)
	VSTM (word span, one syllable high frequency words)	-0.16
	English
	-5.10 (WRAT-3 reading)		IQ RD = 100.6 (WISC III)	
	RL
	20 (20)	15:5 (10:0)	VSTM (word span, one syllable high frequency words)	-0.78	English	0.52 (WRAT-3 reading)			
Swanson, Ashbaker et al. 1996	CA	30 (30)	14:6 (14:5)	VSTM (word span high frequency words)	0.00	English	-4.65 (WRAT reading)		IQ RD = 98.2 (WISC or Raven)	
Thompson & Johnston 2000	CA
	28 (47)
	10:8 (10:8)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
	-1.98	English
	-4.52 (BAS word recognition)	0.00 (WISC Vocabulary)		
	RL
	28 (28)	10:8 (7:3)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)	0.25	English	-0.27 (BAS word recognition)	-0.11 (WISC Vocabulary)		
Thomson, Richardson et. al 2005
Comparison 1	

CA	

47 (41)	

9:4 (9:4)	

VSTM (immediate serial recall CVC words)	

-0.74	

English

-3.89 (BAS reading and spelling)	

0.06 (BPVS)

0.06 (WISC short form)	
	RL
	47 (38)	9:4 (7:4)	VSTM (immediate serial recall CVC words)
	0.24	English	-0.03 (BAS reading and spelling)	0.07 (BPVS)	-0.01 (WISC short form)	
van Bon & van der Pijl, 1997	RL	21 (25)	10:3 (8:4)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme detection)
	-0.33	Dutch	RD 45 words/ minute, C 42 words/ minute (one minute reading test)		-0.47 (RAVEN)	
van Daal & van der Leij, 1999
	CA

	41 (34)
	12 years

	Phoneme Aw (phoneme blending)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	0.00
-0.28
	Dutch
	-2.09 (one minute reading test -accuracy and fluency)		-0.44 (only 30 RD and 17 C children examined)	
van der Sluis, van der Leij & de Jong. 2005	CA	18 (24)	10:7 (10:8)	VSTM (digit span forward WISC)
	0.27	Dutch	-3.37 (One minute reading test, accuracy and fluency)		0.27 (Raven)	
Willcutt, Pennington et al. 2005	CA	44 (79)	11:0 (11:6)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-1.60
-1.03	English	-2.45 (PIAT reading recognition)	-1.14 (WISC vocabulary)	-1.00 (WISC performance IQ)	
Wimmer 1993
Comparison 1	
CA	
23 (67)	
8:5 (8:4)	
Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	
-0.39
-0.26	
German	
RD = 7 percentile, C = 57 percentile (reading speed)		
IQ RD = 64 percentile, C = 53 (Raven)	
Comparison 2	CA	22 (36)	9:4 (9:4)	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-0.80
0.05	German	RD = 4 percentile, C = 51 percentile (reading speed)		IQ RD = 57 percentile, C = 42 (Raven)	
Comparison 3	CA

	29 (41)
	10:5 (10:3)
	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-0.72
-0.90
	German

	RD = 4 percentile, C = 48 percentile (reading speed)		IQ RD = 59 percentile, C = 60 (Raven)	
	RL
	29 (67)	10:5 (8:4)	Rime Aw (Rime Oddity task)
VSTM (digit span forward WISC)	-0.05
0.28	German	RD = 4 percentile, C = 57 percentile for 2. grade (reading speed)		IQ RD = 59 percentile, C = 53 (Raven)	
Wimmer, Mayringer & Landerl, 1998
	CA	20 (27)	8:4 (8:3)	Phoneme Aw (alliteration syllable and phoneme)
Rime Aw (Rime detection)
VSTM (span for pseudowords)	-0.45
-0.25
-0.51
	German	-3.81 (reading speed frequent words)	-0.61 (WISC vocabulary)	-0.37 (Raven)	
Wood & Terrell 1998	CA
	30 (30)
	9:1 (9:0)
	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime detection)	-1.60
-1.21	English
	-1.64 (BAS word recognition)	-1.26 (BPVS)
		
	RL
	30 (30)	9:1 (6:4)	Phoneme Aw (phoneme deletion)
Rime Aw (Rime detection)	-0.21
-1.14	English	0.00 (BAS word recognition)	-1.17 (BPVS)		

Note. All information in the table concerning control groups are parenthesized. 
Abbreviations in alphabetical order: BAS = British Ability Scales; BPVS = British picture vocabulary scale; C = Control; CA = chronological age controls; CTOPP = Comprehensive test of phonological processing; Dys = Dyslexia; GORT = Gray oral reading test; K-TEA = Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement ; NARA= Neale Analysis of Reading Ability; NEPSY = neuropsychological assessment test; Phoneme aw = phonemic awareness; PIAT = Peabody Individual Achievement Test; PPVT = Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; PROLEC = Spanish standadized reading test; RD = reading disabled; RL = reading level controls; Rime aw= rime awareness; SS = Standardized scores; TAAS = test of auditory analysis skills; TOLD = Test of language development; TONI = Test of Nonverbal Intelligence; VSTM = verbal short-term memory; WASI = Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; WIAT = Wechsler Individual Achievement Test; WISC = Wechsler Intelligence scale for children; WJ = Woodcock Johnson; WORD = Wechsler Objective Reading Dimensions; WRAT = Wide Range Achievement Test; WRMT Word id = Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests word identification

Table 2 (Supplemental web material)
Characteristics of Correlational Studies of Phonemic awareness, Rime awareness, Verbal Short-term Memory and Reading Skills 
Study
author, year, document type	N	
Sample type	Age	Language	
Outcome
Construct (indicator)
	Effect size (r)
(95% CI)	
Abu-Rabia 1995	143	Unselected	8-11	Arabic	Phoneme aw (six measures, mostly phoneme based)/Reading (adapted r accuracy)	0.92	
Aidinis & Nunes, 2001 	60	Unselected	6:6	Greek	Phoneme aw (Oddity phoneme task)/Reading (adapted r accuracy)	0.71	
al Mannai & Everatt, 2005	171	Unselected	7:5	Arabic	Rime aw (Oddity Rime task)/Reading (adapted r accuracy)
VSTM (digit span)/Reading (adapted r accuracy)	0.48
0.21	
Alloway, Gathercole, et al., 2005	194	Unselected	5:1	English	VSTM (composite word and nonword recall, nonword repetition)/Reading (Stockton baseline r)	0.46	
Anthony, Williams, et al., 2007	389
236	Ethnically diverse Head Start sample	4:6	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/Reading (25 item test of word reading accuracy)
VSTM (memory for words CTOPP)/Reading (25 item test of word reading accuracy)	0.27
0.22	
Ashbaker & Swanson,1996	30	Unselected	14:1	English	VSTM (Word span)/ Reading (WRAT-r reading)
	0.00	
Bell, McCallum & Cox, 2003	105	Unselected	5:6 – 13:3	English	Phoneme aw (ph manipulation in nonwords)/Reading (nonword reading)
VSTM (Word span)/ Reading (nonword reading)	0.57
0.42	
Berg, 2008	90	Unselected	10:2	English	VSTM (Word span)/ Reading (WRAT-3 reading)	0.48	
Blaiklock, 2004
	29	Unselected	6:1	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme deletion)/ Reading (Burt word reading)
VSTM (digit span)/ Reading (Burt word reading)
Rime aw (Oddity Rime task)/Reading (Burt word reading)	0.55
0.26
0.57	
Boada & Pennington. 2006
	80	40 children with dyslexia, 40 control children	11:3	English	Phoneme aw (ph reversal & pig latin)/Reading (PIAT-r reading)
	0.55	
Boets, Wouters, van Wieringen, et al., 2008	62	Unselected	5:2	Dutch	VSTM (composite digit span/nonword repetition)/ Reading (accuracy and fluency word r)	0.35	
Bosse, Tainturier & Valdois, 2007
	Sample 1

123

68 dyslexic and 55 control children	

11:6

French

Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/Reading (reading regular words)

0.28
	
	Sample 2	52	29 dyslexic and 23 control	10:5	English	Phoneme aw (ph spoonerisms)/Reading (reading regular words)
Rime aw (Rime generation)/ Reading (reading regular words)	0.46
0.27	
Bowey, 1994	96	Unselected	5:3	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme identity)/Reading (word id ready to read)	0.50	
Bowey, Cain & Ryan, 1992	36
	Unselected
	4. grade
	English

	Phoneme aw (oddity phoneme task)/Reading (WRMT word attack)
Rime aw (oddity onset Rime) / Reading (WRMT word attack)
VSTM (Digit span)/ Reading (WRMT word attack)	0.77
0.69
0.37	
Bowey, McGuigan & Ruschena, 2005	65	Unselected
	9:2	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme and syllable deletion)/Reading (WRMT word Id)
	0.69	
Bowers, 1989
	27	14 children selected for poor reading skills, 13 normal reading control children	4. grade	English	Phoneme aw (AAT phoneme and syllable deletion)/Reading (WRMT word id)
VSTM (Word span)/ Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.70
0.47	
Bowers, 1993
	36	8 children with dyslexia, 28 controls	2. grade	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme deletion)/Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.53	
Bowers & Swanson, 1991
	43	24 poor readers and 19 average readers	2. grade	English	Phoneme aw (AAT phoneme and syllable deletion)/Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.36	
Bruno, Manis, et al., 2007	46	23 dyslexic 23 normal reading controls	11:5	English	Phoneme aw (ph and syllable deletion CTOPP)/Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.69	
Cafouleas, Lewandowski, et al 1997	171	Unselected	6:8	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme deletion )/ Reading (WJ word letter id)
Rime aw (Rime generation)/ Reading (WJ word letter id)
	0.80
0.48	
Caravolas, Hulme & Snowling, 2001	153	Unselected	5:1	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme isolation)/Reading (adapted word accuracy test)
VSTM (Word span)/ Reading (adapted word accuracy test)	0.44
0.24	
Carlisle & Nomanbhoy, 1993	101	Unselected	6:6	English	Phoneme aw (composite ph and syllable deletion TAAS)/Reading (word reading accuracy test adapted to study)	0.58	
Carrillo 1994
Sample 1

Sample 2	
68

52	
Unselected

Unselected
	
5:10

6:10	
Spanish

Spanish	
Phoneme aw (phoneme deletion)/Reading (decode syllable and words)
Rime aw (Rime detection)/ Reading (decode syllable and words)
Phoneme aw (phoneme deletion)/Reading (decode syllable and words)
Rime aw (Rime detection)/ Reading (decode syllable and words)	
0.54
0.56
0.52
0.15	
Chaney, 1998	41	Unselected	7:3	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/Reading (WRMT word id)	0.53	
Clarke, Hulme & Snowling, 2005	30	Unselected	10:7	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/Reading (exception word reading)	0.57	
Compton, 2000	73	Unselected	6:6	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme blending and phoneme segmentation)/Reading (word reading accuracy test adapted to study)	0.55	
Conners, 2009
	67	Unselected
	8:6	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion and ph blending)/Reading (PIAT word and nonword reading)	0.70	
Cormier & Dea 1997	103	Unselected
	7:10	English	Phoneme aw (ph and syllable deletion TAAS)/ Reading (WRMT word id)
VSTM (Digit span forward WISC)/ Reading (WRMT word id)	0.64
0.35	
Cornelissen, Hansen et al, 1998	58	Unselected
	10:5	English	Phoneme aw (ph spoonerisms)/Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (oddity Rime task)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.57
0.40	
Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990	98	Unselected
	9:6	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/Reading (WJ word id)
	0.38	
Cunningham & Stanovich, 1993	26	Unselected	6:11	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/Reading (SAT word reading)
	0.40	
Cutting & Denckla, 2001	79	Unselected
	8:0	English	Phoneme aw (ph and syllable deletion TAAS)/ Reading (WJ word id)
VSTM (Digit span)/ Reading (WJ word id)	0.67
0.31	
de Jong 2011
	Sample 1
	Sample 2	
71
74	
Unselected
Unselected
	
7:3
8:3	
Dutch
Dutch	
Phoneme aw (ph  deletion nonwords)/ Reading (OMRT)
Phoneme aw (ph  deletion nonwords)/ Reading (OMRT)
	
0.50
0.43	
de Jong & van der Leij 1999
Sample 1

82

Unselected

6:7

Dutch

Phoneme aw (first sound categorisation)/ Reading (OMRT)
Rime aw (Rime categorisation)/ Reading (OMRT)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (OMRT)	

0.54
0.51
0.51	
	Sample 2	80	Unselected
	6:7	Dutch	Phoneme aw (first sound categorisation)/ Reading (OMRT)
Rime aw (Rime categorisation)/ Reading (OMRT)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (OMRT)	0.46
0.27
0.39	
Deacon & Kirby, 2004	103	Unselected
	7:4	English	Rime aw (oddity Rime task)/Reading (WRMT word id)	0.69	
Duncan & Johnston, 1999	

	Sample 1
	41
	Unselected
	10:8
	English
	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (Rime judgement)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.05
0.37	
	Sample 2	41	Unselected
	7:7	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (Rime judgement)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.09
0.53	
Durand, Hulme, Larkin & Snowling, 2005	102	Unselected
	8:11	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.65
0.24	
Durgunoğlu & Őney, 1999
Sample 1	

46	

Unselected	

5:9	

Turkish	

Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (adapted reading accuracy test)	

0.40	
	 Sample 2	25	Unselected	6:2	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT word id)	0.56	
Eckert, Leonard et al., 2003	50	18 RD and 32 CA controls	11:4	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.82	
Evans, Bell et al., 2006	142	Unselected
	Grade 1	English	Phoneme aw (Composite phoneme identification tasks)/ Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.53	
Farmer & Klein, 1993	60	20 RD, 20 CA controls, 20 RL controls	12:4	English	Phoneme aw (Composite phoneme identification tasks)/ Reading (WRAT reading)
		
Farrington-Flint, Wood et al., 2004	51	Unselected
	5:6	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)
Rime aw (Oddity Rime task)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)	0.50
0.54	
Garlock, Walley & Metsala, 2001	92	Unselected
	6:7	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT-r reading)
	0.59	
Gathercole, 1995
	111	Unselected
	5:3	English	VSTM (digit span and word span)/ Reading (Picture word matching and BAS single word reading)	0.31	
Gathercole, Willis & Baddeley, 1991
Sample 1

57

Unselected

4:9

English

Rime aw (Oddity Rime task)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)
VSTM (digit span)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)	

0.16
0.17	
	Sample 2	51	Unselected
	5:9	English	Rime aw (Oddity Rime task)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)
VSTM (digit span)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)
	0.41
0.31	
Gathercole, Willis, et al., 1992	118	Unselected	6:7	English	VSTM (digit span)/ (Reading test A BAS)	0.36	
Georgiou, Das & Hayward, 2008	50	Unselected	9:4	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WJ word id)
	0.57	
Georgiou, Parrila & Papadopoulos, 2008
Sample 1

132

Unselected

6:6

English

Phoneme aw (composite syllable and ph)/ Reading (TOWRE)
VSTM (digit span) )/ Reading (TOWRE)	

0.64
0.49	
	 Sample 2	75	Unselected	6:9	Greek	Phoneme aw (composite syllable and ph)/ Reading (TOWRE)
VSTM (digit span) )/ Reading (TOWRE)	0.36
0.26	
Gilbertson & Bramlett, 1998	91	Unselected	6:7	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WJ word id)
	0.45	
Gottardo, Stanovich & Siegel, 1996	112	Unselected	8:9	English	Phoneme aw (composite syllable and ph)/ Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.69	
Gray & McCutchen, 2006
Sample 1	

82

Unselected

6:2

English

Phoneme aw (TOPA kindergarten)/ Reading (Gates-McGinitie reading test)	

0.70
	
	Sample 2	70	Unselected	7:6	English	Phoneme aw (TOPA kindergarten)/ Reading (Gates-McGinitie reading test)	0.37	
Griffiths & Snowling 2002	59	Unselected	8:2	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WORD)
Rime aw (Rime generation)/ Reading (WORD)	0.64
0.07	
Hansen & Bowey 1994	68
49	Unselected
	7:4	English	Phoneme aw (Oddity phoneme task)/ /Reading (WRMT word id)
VSTM (word span) )/ Reading (WRMT word id)	0.50
0.19	
Havey, Story & Buker, 2002	81	Unselected
	6:2	English	Phoneme aw (TOPA)/ Reading (WDRB letter word id)
VSTM (CTOPP) )/ Reading (WDRB letter word id)	0.49
0.23	
Hester & Hodson 2004	65	Unselected
	9:3	English	Phoneme aw (Pig latin)/ Reading (WJ word attack)
	0.69	
Hogan, Catts & Little, 2005	570	328 LI, 276 unimpaired	2. grade	English	Phoneme aw (deletion phoneme and syllable)/ /Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.70	
Holliman, Wood & Sheehy, 2010	102	Unselected	6:7	English	Phoneme aw ( phoneme deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (Rime detection)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
VSTM (digit span BAS)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.76
0.69
0.41	
Holopainen, Ahonen, Tolvanen & Lyytinen, 2000	91	Unselected	6:11	Finish	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (word list reading)
	0.73	
Hood, Conlon & Andrews, 2008	123	Unselected	6:0	English	VSTM (digit span) / Reading (WDRB letter word id)	0.24	
Hulme, Goetz,et al 2007
Sample 1	

66	

Unselected	

9:10	

English	

Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WORD basic reading)	

0.69	
Sample 2	127	Unselected	8:11	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WORD basic reading)	0.56	
Hulme, Hatcher, et al., 2002	72	Unselected	5:6	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS reading)
Rime aw (Rime composite)/ Reading (BAS reading)	0.49
0.33	
Hurford, Schauf et al., 1994	171	Unselected	1. grade	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT word id)
	0.36	
Høien-Tengesdal & Tønnessen, 2011
	Sample 1

	Sample 2	

531

476	

Unselected

Unselected	

Grade 3

Grade 5	

Norwegian and Swedish
Norwegian and Swedish	

Phoneme aw (Ph analysis and synthesis)/ Reading (word identification)
VSTM (digit span)/ )/ Reading (word identification)
Phoneme aw (Ph analysis and synthesis)/ Reading (word identification)
VSTM (digit span)/ )/ Reading (word identification)

0.32
0.25
0.39
0.18	
Jarmulowicz, Hay, et al., 2008	76	Unselected	8:10	English	Phoneme aw (composite syllable and ph deletion and blending)/ Reading (WRMT-r WA)	0.53	
Joanisse, Manis, et al., 2000	37	Unselected	6:11	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)	0.37	
Katzir, Kim, et al., 2006	17	Unselected	7:1	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
VSTM (digit memory CTOPP) )/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)	0.64
0.03	
Kim, Kim & Lee, 2007	34	Unselected	1. grade	Korean	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (adapted accuracy test)	0.35	
Laing & Hulme 1999	60	Unselected	5:8	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (Rime production)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.76
0.66	
Leather & Henry 1994	71	Unselected	7:5	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (NARA accuracy)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (NARA accuracy)	0.71
0.14	
Lee, 2008
	117	Unselected	7:0	Malay	Phoneme aw (deletion ph and sylables)/ Reading (adapted word reading accuracy test)
VSTM (digit span)/ Reading (adapted word reading accuracy test)	0.82
0.41	
Lepola, Poskiparta, et al., 2005	100	Unselected	Spring 1. grade	Finnish	Phoneme aw (Ph blending)/ Reading (adapted accuracy and fluency test)
	0.45	
Leppänen, Niemi, et al., 2006	196	Unselected	6:3	Finnish	Phoneme aw (sound recognition)/ Reading (adapted word and sentence reading test)
	0.66	
Lervåg, Bråten & Hulme, 2009	197	Unselected	7:6	Norwegian	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (adapted accuracy and fluency test)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (adapted word reading accuracy test)	0.45
0.21	
Levy, Gong, et al., 2006
Sample 1	

150	

Unselected	

4 years	

English	

Phoneme aw (TAAS syllable and ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT-3 reading)	

0.52	
Sample 2	166	Unselected	5 years	English	Phoneme aw (TAAS syllable and ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT-3 reading)	0.57	
	 Sample 3	158	Unselected	6 years	English	Phoneme aw (TAAS syllable and ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT-3 reading)	0.58	
MacDonald & Cornwall, 1995	24	Unselected	17:0	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT-r reading)
	0.57	
Manis, Doi & Bhadha, 2000	85	Unselected	7:10	English	Phoneme aw (TAAS syllable and ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
	0.53	
Manis, McBride-Chang, et al., 1997	44	25 RD, 25 CA control, 24 RL C	11:3	English	Phoneme aw (phoneme position analysis)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
	0.53	
Mann & Foy, 2003	99	Unselected	4:9	English	Phoneme aw (composite Ph deletion and substitution)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
Rime aw (Rime recognition and production)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)	0.45
0.02	
Marshall, Snowling & Bailey, 2001	82	Unselected	8:11	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WORD)
Phoneme aw (Rime oddity task)/ Reading (WORD)	0.82
0.76	
McBride-Chang, 1996	156	Unselected	8:9	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
VSTM (word span) / Reading (WRMT- word ID)	0.56
0.23	
McBride-Chang & Chang 1996	126	Unselected	9-16 y	English	Phoneme aw (Ph identification)/ Reading (adapted word reading accuracy test)
VSTM (digit span)/ Reading (adapted word reading accuracy test)	0.55
0.64	
McBride-Chang, Cho, et al., 2005
	Sample 1	

100	

Unselected	

7:9	

Korean	

Phoneme aw (syllable and ph deletion)/ Reading (word reading accuracy test)	

0.47	
	Sample 2	105	Unselected	8:0	English	Phoneme aw (syllable and Ph deletion)/ Reading (WJ letter-word id)	0.43	
McBride-Chang & Manis, 1996	74	Unselected	9:1	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT- reading)	0.42	
McBride-Chang, Wagner, et al., 2005	115	Unselected
	6:1	English	Phoneme aw (syllable and Ph deletion)/ Reading (WJ letter-word id)	0.57	
McCutchen, Green & Abbott, 2008	72	Unselected
	Grades 4 and 6	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
	0.35	
McDougall, Hulme, Ellis & Monk, 1994	69	Unselected
	8:5	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (Rime generation)/Reading (BAS word reading)
VSTM (word span) / Reading (BAS word reading)	0.61
0.58
0.35	
McGuinness, McGuinness & Donohue, 1995	94	Unselected
	6:9	English	Phoneme aw (Lindamood)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
VSTM (word span) / Reading (WRMT- word ID)	0.54
0.34	
Metsala, 1999 a	20	Unselected	7:11	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT reading)	0.29	
Metsala 1999 b
	61	Unselected
	5:1	English	Phoneme aw (ph blending)/ Reading (WRAT reading)
Rime aw (onset Rime blending)/ Reading (WRAT reading)
VSTM (word span) / Reading (WRAT reading)	0.56
0.49
0.40	
Mimran, 2006
	44	24 RD, 20 C	11:4	Hebrew	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (word reading accuracy test)
VSTM (digit span)/ Reading (word reading accuracy test)	0.69
0.43	
Moll, Fussenegger, et al., 2009	341	Unselected	10:5	German	Phoneme aw (Oddity phoneme task)/ Reading (word reading fluency test)	0.16	
Muter, Hulme, et al., 2004	90	Unselected	Ca 5:9	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS II word reading)
Rime aw (Rime production)/ Reading (BAS II word reading)	0.59
0.30	
Muter, Hulme, et al., 1998	38	Unselected	Ca 5:3	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (Rime production)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.51
0.03	
Muter & Snowling, 1998	34	Unselected	9:9	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (NARA accuracy)
Rime aw (Rime detection)/ Reading (NARA accuracy)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (NARA accuracy)	0.84
0.47
0.46	
Näslund & Schneider, 1996	112	Unselected	8:1	German	Phoneme aw (Ph recoding)/ Reading (word and pseudoword reading speed)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (word and pseudoword reading speed)	0.24
0.10	
Nation & Hulme, 1997	75	Unselected	7:7	English	Phoneme aw (Ph segmentation)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
Rime aw (Rime segmentation)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.79
0.54	
Neuhaus & Swank, 2002	221	Unselected	7:3	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WJ letter word id)	0.65	
Neuhaus, Roldan et al., 2006	122	Unselected	8:9	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
	0.66	
Noble, Farah & McCandliss, 2006	150	Unselected	1. grade	English	Phoneme aw (CTOPP composite)/ Reading (WJ III word id)	0.67	
Oakhill & Kyle 2000	58	Unselected	8:1	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (Gates-MacGinitie reading ability test)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (Gates-MacGinitie reading ability test)	0.53
0.38	
Oakhill, Cain & Bryant, 2003	102	Unselected	7:6	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (NARA accuracy)
	0.37
	
Oktay & Aktan, 2002
Sample 1	

46	

Unselected	

5:9	

Turkish	

Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (Adapted word accuracy test)	

0.41	
	 Sample 2	24	Unselected	6:2	English	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)	0.56	
Őney & Durgunoğlu 1997	30	Unselected
	6:4	Turkish
	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (Adapted word accuracy test)
	0.25	
Ouellette & Beers, 2010
	Sample 1
	Sample 2	

67
56	

Unselected
Unselected

6:7
12	

English
English	

Phoneme aw (CTOPP sound matching)/ Reading (Adapted word reading test)
Phoneme aw (CTOPP ph cmposite)/ Reading (Adapted word reading test)

0.55
0.16	
Pammer, Lavis, et al., 2004	38	Unselected
	10:7	English
	Phoneme aw (Ph deletion)/ Reading (NARA accuracy)
VSTM (digit span) / Reading (NARA accuracy)	0.71
0.45	
Parrila, Kirby & McQuarrie 2004	117	Unselected
	Ca 6:6	English
	Phoneme aw (Composite ph isolation and ph blending)/ Reading (WRMT- word ID)
VSTM (word span) / Reading (WRMT- word ID)	0.68
0.24	
Pennington, Cardoso-Martins et al., 2001	97	Unselected
	11:1	English
	Phoneme aw (Composite ph reversal and pig latin)/ Reading (PIAT r recognition)
VSTM (word span) / Reading (PIAT r recognition)	0.60
0.66	
Plaza & Cohen, 2003	267	Unselected
	6:9	French	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/ Reading (One minute reading test)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (One minute reading test)	0.76
0.28	
Poe, Burchinal & Roberts, 2004	77	African American children	8:2	English	Phoneme aw (incomplete words)/ Reading (WJ word id)
	0.45	
Pointz, Rimm-Kaufman, Grimm & Curby, 2009	171	Unselected
	Spring kinder-garten	English	Phoneme aw (sound awareness)/ Reading (WJ word id)
	0.71	
Powell , Stainthorp et al 2007	884	Unselected
	8:4	English	Phoneme aw (Composite ph and syllable deletion)/ Reading (BAS word reading)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (BAS word reading)	0.57
0.36	
Rispens, McBride-Chang, & Reitsma, 2008
Sample 1
Sample 2	

104
112	

Unselected
Unselected	

6:9
12:1	

Dutch
Dutch	

Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/ Reading (One minute reading test)
Phoneme aw (ph deletion and ph exchange)/ Reading (One minute reading test)	

0.38
0.49	
Ritchey, 2008	60	Unselected	5:9	English	Phoneme aw (CTOPP sound matching, blending and elision)/ Reading (TERA)	0.51	
Rohl & Pratt 1995	76	Unselected
	Ca 6:8	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion )/ Reading (composite reading and spelling tests)
VSTM (word and letter span )/reading (composite reading and spelling tests)	0.70
0.44	
Roman, Kirby, Wade-Woolley & Deacon, 2009	92	Unselected	11:8	English	Phoneme aw (CTOPP syllable and phoneme deletion)/ Reading (WRAT-r word id)
	0.48	
Saiegh-Haddad, 2005	42	Unselected	7:0	Arabic	Phoneme aw (ph isolation )/ Reading (nonword reading fluency)
	0.39	
Savage, Frederickson et al., 2005	61	Unselected	3. and 5. grade	English	Phoneme aw (ph spoonerisms )/ Reading (BAS word reading)
VSTM (word list recall WMTBC)/reading (BAS word reading)
	0.74
0.23	
Scarborough, 1998	55	At risk children: 19 RD and 36 NRD	2. grade	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion )/ Reading (WJ word id)
	0.42	
Schwiebert, Green & McCutchen, 2002	58	Unselected	9:6-10:10	English	Phoneme aw (nonword segmentation )/ Reading (WRMT- word id)
	0.13	
Singson, Mahony & Mann 2000	101	Unselected	10:7	English	Phoneme aw (AAT syllable and ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word id)
	0.44	
Sprugevica & Høien, 2003	70	Unselected	6:8	Latvian	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/ Reading (adapted r accuracy test)
VSTM (digit span)/reading (adapted r accuracy test)	0.51
0.45	
Swanson, 2008
	205	Unselected	7:7	English	Phoneme aw (CTOPP syllable and ph deletion)/ Reading (WRAT word recognition)
VSTM (word span)/ Reading (WRAT word recognition)	0.70
0.27	
Swanson, Ashbaker & Lee, 1996	60	30 RD (with math problems, IQ 98.2) and 30 CA controls	14:6	English	VSTM (Composite digit span and word span)/ Reading (WRAT word recognition)
	0.71	
Swanson & Howell 2001	100	Unselected	12:2	English	VSTM (Composite digit span and word span)/ Reading (WRAT word recognition)
	0.55	
Talcott, Witton et al 1999	32	Unselected	9:9	English	Phoneme aw (spoonerisms)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)
VSTM (BAS digit recall)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)
	0.69
0.25	
Talcott, Witton et al., 2002	350	Unselected	9:4	English	Phoneme aw (spoonerisms)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)
VSTM (BAS digit recall)/ Reading (BAS single word reading)	0.61
0.46	
Torgesen, Wagner et al. 1990	79	Unselected	2. grade	English	VSTM (digit span)/ Reading (WRMT- word id)	0.10	
Tunmer & Fletcher, 1981	37	Unselected	6:9	English	Phoneme aw (ph tapping)/ Reading (WRAT word recognition)
	0.14	
Tunmer, Herriman & Nesdale, 1988	106	Unselected	Ca 6:8	English	Phoneme aw (ph tapping)/ Reading (Interactive reading assessment system, real word reading)	0.44	
Verhagen, Aarnoutse & van Leeuwe 2008	226	Unselected	Ca 6:6	Dutch	Phoneme aw (ph blending)/ Reading (two minutes reading test)
	0.41	
Wagner, Torgesen & Rashotte 1994
	244	Unselected	Ca 6:8	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word id)
Rime aw (Rime onset blending)/ Reading (WRMT- word id)
VSTM (digit span) / Reading (WRMT- word id)	0.61
0.50
0.27	
Wagner, Torgesen, et al., 1993	89	Unselected	8:1	English	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/ Reading (WRMT- word id)
Rime aw (Rime onset blending)/ Reading (WRMT- word id)
VSTM (digit span) / Reading (WRMT- word id)	0.51
0.19
0.14	
Wesseling & Reitsma, 2001

Sample 1

62

Unselected

Ca 6:6

Dutch

Phoneme aw (composite ph blending, ph segmentation)/ Reading (OMRT and CVC decoding)	

0.46
	
	Sample 2	42	Unselected	Ca 6:6	Dutch	Phoneme aw (composite ph blending, ph segmentation)/ Reading (OMRT and CVC decoding)	0.54	
Wimmer, Landerl, et al., 1991	20	Unselected	7:2	German	Phoneme aw (ph counting)/ Reading (reading time and reading errors lists of words and nonwords)	0.65	
Winskel & Widjaja, 2007	73	Unselected	6:1	Indonesian	Phoneme aw (ph deletion)/ Reading (adapted word reading test)
Rime aw (oddityRime task)/ Reading (adapted word reading test)	0.73
0.51	
Zifcak, 1981	42	Unselected	1. grade	English	Phoneme aw (syllable and ph segmentation)/ Reading (WRAT reading)
	0.78	

Note. Abbreviations in alphabetical order: AAT = Auditory analysis test; BAS = British Ability Scales; C = control; CTOPP = Comprehensive test of phonological processing; Dys = Dyslexia; GORT = Gray oral reading test; NARA= Neale Analysis of Reading Ability; OMRT = One minute reading test; Ph = Phoneme; Phoneme aw = phonemic awareness; PIAT = Peabody Individual Achievement Test; PROLEC = Spanish standadized reading test; RD = reading disabled; Rime aw = rime awareness; RL = reading level control;TAAS = test of auditory analysis skills; TERA = Test of early reading ability; TOPA = test of phonological awareness; TOWRE = Test of word reading efficience; VSTM = verbal short-term memory; WDRB = Woodcock Diagnostic Reading Battery; WIAT = Wechsler Individual Achievement Test; WJ = Woodcock Johnson; WORD = Wechsler Objective Reading Dimensions; word id = word identification; WRAT = Wide Range Achievement Test; WRMT Word id = Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests word identification

Table 3 (Supplementary online material)
Mean Bivariate Correlations (Weighted by Random Effects models) Between Phonemic awareness, Rime awareness, and Verbal Short-term memory Effect Sizes and Moderator Variables (CA studies lower triangle, RL studies upper triangle), and Number of Studies Contributing Data to each Pair wise Correlation
	Phon
Awareness	Rh
Awareness	VSTM	Oral language	Reading level 
	IQ	Age (Dys) 	
Phon
Awareness	1	.65**
 (k = 14)	.55**
(k = 19)
	.28**
(k = 51)
	.29**
(k = 78)
	.06
(k = 50)	-.03
(k = 79)	
Rh
Awareness 	.61*
(k = 6)	1	.06
(k = 11)	.59**
(k = 11)	.12
(k = 24)	.10
(k = 18)	-.16
(k = 26)	
VSTM 	.07
(k = 6)	-
(k = 4)	1	.52
(k = 26)	.12
(k = 46)
	.06
(k = 29)	-.09
(k = 47)	
Oral language 	-.21
(k = 18)	.-
(k = 4)	.07
(k = 8)	1	.20
(k = 60)	.58**
(k =43)	-.14
(k = 57)	
Reading level 	.22
(k = 26)	.20
(k = 12)	-.13
(k = 21)	-.18
(k = 19)	1	.14
(k = 68)	-.12
(k = 100)	
 IQ
	-.07
(k = 16)	-.26
(k = 7)	 .03                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
 (k = 14)	.51*
(k = 11)	-.26
(k = 23)	1	.07
(k = 90)	
Age (Dys)	-.08
(k = 36)	.61**
(k = 12)	-.04
(k = 24)	.44*
(k = 20)	.17
(k = 44)	-.03
(k = 26)	1	
Note: Phon Awareness = Phonemic awareness; Rh awareness = Rime awareness; Verbal STM = verbal short-term memory; Dys = sample with dyslexia; k = Number of studies; *= p < .05, ** = p < .01.